Дата: 03 февраля 1999 (1999-02-03)
От: Alexander Bondugin
Тема: SpaceViews - 1 February 1999 [1/6]
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S P A C E V I E W S
Issue 1999.02.01
1999 February 1
http://www.spaceviews.com/1999/02/
*** News ***
Russian Government Extends Life of Mir
NASA Confirms New Service Module Delay
Pluto Classification Debate Heats Up
Athena Launches, Delta and Atlas Delayed
Agreement Clears Way for Globalstar Launches
Astronomers Get Unprecedented Look at Gamma-Ray Burst
Five Space Science Missions Selected for Study
SpaceViews Event Horizon
Other News
*** Articles ***
Vanguard and Its Legacy
*** News ***
Russian Government Extends Life of Mir
The Russian government issued a decree Friday, January 22,
extending the life of the Mir space station from mid-1999 until 2002
if commercial sponsors can be found, the Russian news agency Itar-Tass
reported.
The decree, signed by Russian Prime Minister Yevgeny Primakov,
calls for the station to continue operating using private funds,
rather than the government funds that currently support station
operations.
"If Energiya can find non-budgetary money, or putting it
bluntly, sponsors, then the Mir station will continue to exist,"
Alexander Botvinko, deputy head of the Russian Space Agency, told
Reuters. "If they don't find the money, then we'll follow the plan
[to deorbit the station this summer] that was earlier approved."
In December, officials from Energia, the company that operates
Mir for the Russian Space Agency, announced that private investors had
been found to continue operating the station for three more years.
However, the identity of the investors was not revealed then or at any
time since then.
"We have a preliminary agreement that a contract could be
signed but our partner had requested that the government first approve
this resolution," an Energia spokesman, who also said the partner was
a foreign firm, told Reuters. "Now that the resolution has come out,
that question has been removed."
Energia president Yuri Semionov said at the time that the
identity of the investors would remain secret until the Russian
government approved investment guarantees for the station. It's not
clear whether Primakov's decree includes such guarantees.
Speculation in online discussion groups and mailing lists has
focused on China, which is currently developing its own manned space
program using some Russian hardware. Access to Mir, some claim, could
give the Chinese manned program a jump start and give it experience
for a possible later role with the International Space Station.
While American reaction to plans to extend Mir's life have
been lukewarm, at best, one organization has openly endorsed the move.
The Space Frontier Foundation (SFF) issued a press release January 27
calling on NASA and the U.S. government to support the decision.
"If Russia finds commercial means to keep Mir in orbit, the
U.S. will achieve its originally stated goal for working with them to
build the International Space Station," claimed SFF president Rick
Tumlinson. "It keeps their space team intact, paid, and in Russia. It
will mean fresh cash flow for their hard-pressed high technology
sector, and can also act as a test case for commercialization of human
space activities -- something NASA says it wants to do with ISS."
A replacement Mir crew of Russian cosmonaut Viktor Afanasyev
and guest cosmonauts Jean-Pierre Heignere of France and Ivan Bella of
Slovakia are scheduled to launch February 20. Afanasyev and Heignere
will remain on Mir while Bella returns with current Mir commander
Gennady Padalka.
Afanasyev, Heignere, and current Mir flight engineer Sergei
Avdeyev, who will remain on Mir during the crew change, were scheduled
to remain on Mir through June if Mir was deorbited in July as planned.
However, when the launch date was announced last week, Russian
officials said the three-man crew would stay on through August, a
six-month mission.
While the debate continues, the current Mir crew has been busy
on the station working on experiments and station maintainence.
February 3 they plan to deploy the Zmanya-2.5 experiment, a 25-meter
(82-foot) mylar space mirror that will test the ability to focus
sunlight on dark regions of the Earth.
NASA Confirms New Service Module Delay
A key NASA official confirmed Friday, January 29, that the
launch of oft-delayed Service Module for the International Space
Station will be delayed an additional two months, despite Russian
claims to the contrary.
Gretchen McClain, NASA deputy associate administrator for
space station, told Reuters that the scheduled July launch date for
the Russian-built Service Module will be pushed back until September.
"To date, they are behind schedule," she said, noting that the
delay impacts current plans, but "that does not mean we cannot make up
time to 'assembly complete.'"
The statement contradicts states by a Russian Space Agency
spokesman, who said there were no plans to delay the Service Module
launch. "We have no information that it may be postponed," Konstantin
Kreidenko told the Associated Press.
Rumors of another service module delay had been growing for
several weeks. Earlier in January, the Houston Chronicle reported
that the launch of the Service Module might be pushed back because of
delays testing the module.
The launch of the service module has been postponed by more
than a year from its original spring 1998 launch date. Slowdowns in
the assembly of the module, caused by funding shortfalls in Russia,
pushed back the launch of the module first to December 1998, then
again to April and then July of this year.
The module is a key component of the space station, providing
living quarters, life support, and command and control systems
critical for the early stages of the space station, until specialized
modules are added later in the assembly.
The Service Module also provides a reboost capability to the
space station to counteract the delay of the station's orbit caused by
atmospheric drag. NASA has discussed building another module, the
Interim Control Module, to serve this function on the station if the
Service Module continues to be delayed.
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Дата: 03 февраля 1999 (1999-02-03)
От: Alexander Bondugin
Тема: SpaceViews - 1 February 1999 [2/6]
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Pluto Classification Debate Heats Up
Traveling in an orbit that keeps it several billion kilometers
away from the Sun, Pluto is one of the coldest bodies in our solar
system. However, the debate on how it should be classified -- planet,
Kuiper Belt object, or both -- has generated a lot of heat on Earth.
The debate on Pluto's status turned up a notch earlier this
week, when the Division for Planetary Sciences (DPS) of the American
Astronomical Society issued a statement calling upon the International
Astronomical Union (IAU), the arbiter of planetary nomenclature, to
not issue a minor planet number to Pluto.
"This action would undoubtedly be viewed by the broader
scientific community and the general public as a 'reclassification' of
Pluto from a major planet to a minor planet," the DPS governing
committee said. "We feel that there is little scientific or
historical justification for such an action."
Media attention in the last few weeks has focused on the
possibility that the IAU would issue a minor planet number, the same
as those given to asteroids, to Pluto. The number 10,000, due to be
assigned in the next few weeks, has been considered as a likely number
for Pluto.
Most media stories have emphasized that such a move would
"demote" Pluto from planet status. However, the move would in fact
give Pluto a kind of "dual citizenship" as a major and minor planet,
and not revoke its planet status.
"There is no plan to 'downgrade' or 'demote' Pluto," said
Brian Marsden of the IAU's Minor Planet Center in Cambridge,
Massachusetts. "It will stay as a planet."
"Extensive media reporting on this issue, both print and
electronic over the last ten days, has varied from excellent to
abysmal," said Michael F. A'Hearn, a University of Maryland astronomer
and head of the IAU committee discussing Pluto's classification.
Proponents of the move say it would recognize the fact that
Pluto more closely resembles a class of outer solar system bodies
known as Trans-Neptunian or Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs). Pluto's small
size, its distant, eccentric, inclined orbit, and its icy surface are
more like other KBOs than planets.
Complicating the matter is that there is no universal
definition of a planet. Many ad hoc definitions have been proposed,
usually to include or exclude Pluto or some asteroids, but none is
accepted by the IAU. "Debating the dividing line between planet and
minor planet, or asteroid, is like debating the dividing line between
city and town, river and stream," noted David Tholen, an astronomer at
the University of Hawaii.
Some astronomers believe the debate itself is unhealthy to the
field. "This situation is harmful to our profession and will become
more so if not put quickly to rest," Don Yeomans, a JPL scientist
serving as chairman of the DPS, said in a letter to DPS members. "The
public is confused, acrimonious rifts are being created within our
community and many of our colleagues are being diverted from
productive work to counter what they perceive to be an alarming and
unnecessary crisis."
To that end, University of Arizona astronomer Mark Sykes
created an online petition at http://www.treefort.org/pluto/
calling on the IAU to abandon plans to give Pluto a minor planet
number. As of late Friday, January 29, over 150 professional
astronomers and members of the general public had signed the petition.
An informal, nonscientific poll on the SpaceViews Web site
showed that nearly two-thirds of those responding thought that Pluto
should retain its classification as solely a planet. The remainder
were evenly split between dual status for Pluto or designating Pluto
as solely a KBO.
The IAU has given no timeline for any decision it will make
about Pluto's classification. However, for symbolic purposes a
decision may come on or around February 11, the day Pluto regains its
status as most distant planet in the solar system, or March 13, the
date the discovery of the planet was announced 69 years ago.
Athena Launches, Delta and Atlas Delayed
A Lockheed Martin Athena 1 rocket launched a Taiwanese
satellite in late January while weather and technical problems delayed
Atlas and Delta launch attempts.
The Athena 1 lifted off at 7:34 pm EST Tuesday, January 26
(0034 UT January 27) from Launch Complex 46, operated by the Spaceport
Florida Authority. The launch took place on time, and no problems
were reported with the launch, which carried the ROCSAT-1 satellite
into orbit.
ROCSAT-1 (Republic of China Satellite 1) is the first
satellite in Taiwan's fledgling civilian space program. The
spacecraft, built in conjunction with TRW, is designed to give the
Taiwanese aerospace industry experience with building satellites. The
satellite carries several space physics, oceanography, and
communications experiments.
The launch was the third launch for the Athena 1 (previously
known as the Lockheed Martin Launch Vehicle and the Lockheed Launch
Vehicle.) An Athena 1, then known as the LMLV-1, launched the Lewis
satellite for NASA in 1997, but the satellite failed shortly after
reaching orbit for reasons unrelated to the launch. An LLV-1 failed
in its inaugural launch in 1995.
The launch of a Boeing Delta 2 was aborted seconds before
liftoff early Thursday, January 28, when the one of the booster's
vernier engines failed to ignite.
With the weather cooperating for the first time in two weeks,
prospects for the Delta launch from Vandenberg Air Force Base at 5:44
am EST (1044 UT) looked good. However, the countdown was aborted with
less than two seconds before liftoff when a problem with the rocket
prevented one of the vernier engines, used for steering, from starting
up.
The problem is expected to delay the launch by at least 10
days, and perhaps further, because of conflicts with a Delta 2 launch
of NASA's Stardust mission, currently scheduled for February 6 from
Cape Canaveral.
A Lockheed Martin Atlas 2AS was scheduled to lift off at 7:44
pm EST Sunday, January 31, (0044 UT Feb. 1) carrying the JCSAT-6
communications satellite for Japan. However, clouds, rain, and high
winds forced launch controllers to postpone the launch.
The launch has been rescheduled for Monday evening, February
1, at the same time. However, Air Force meteorologists are predicting
only a 30 percent chance of acceptable launch conditions Monday.
Weather conditions are forecast to improve by Tuesday, though.
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Дата: 03 февраля 1999 (1999-02-03)
От: Alexander Bondugin
Тема: SpaceViews - 1 February 1999 [3/6]
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Agreement Clears Way for Globalstar Launches
A technology safeguards agreement signed in Moscow Tuesday,
January 26, has cleared the way for Globalstar to begin an aggressive
schedule of launches to complete its constellation of low-Earth orbit
communications satellites by the end of the year.
Representatives from the United States, Russia, and
Kazakhstan, including U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright,
signed the Technology Safeguards Agreement (TSA) during the
secretary's visit to Moscow Tuesday. The agreement enacts safeguards
to protect sensitive American technology launched on Russian rockets
from Baikonur, Kazakhstan.
"The agreement does not replace or circumvent our strict
case-by-case approval procedures for Russian launches of American
satellites," Albright said, "but it will allow us to resume space
launch cooperation that is consistent with our non-proliferation
objectives." Albright called the agreement "a plus for all three of
our countries."
Lack of an agreement had prevented American companies from
launching their satellites on Russian boosters. This impacted a
number of companies, notably Globalstar, who planned on using several
Russian launches to loft its constellation of low-Earth orbit comsats.
"We're pleased that the TSA is now in place," said Globalstar
chairman and CEO Bernard Schwartz. "This allows us to resume our
launch campaign with our first Soyuz launch."
Shortly after the agreement was signed, Globalstar announced
an ambitious launch schedule designed to launch 44 satellites between
February and the end of the year. The first launch, scheduled for no
later than mid-February, will launch four Globalstar satellites from
Baikonur on a Soyuz booster and Ikar upper stage.
Globalstar then plans three more Soyuz-Ikar launches, each
carrying four satellites, through April. Three Delta 2 launches, each
carrying four satellites, will follow from May through August.
Globalstar then plans two more Soyuz-Ikar launches in September and
October and two more Delta 2 launches in November and December.
The 11 launches, along with the eight existing Globalstar
satellites launched on Delta 2's last year, will put 48 operational
satellites in orbit plus four on-orbit spares. If all goes as
scheduled, Globalstar will have 36 satellites in orbit by the summer,
enough to begin limited commercial service.
Globalstar announced earlier in January that it had signed a
contract for seven Delta 2 launches in 1999 and 2000, two more than
announced Tuesday. It's unclear whether the additional launches will
not be used, or will be reserved for future launches of replacement
spacecraft.
Globalstar also has a contract for a September 1999 Ariane 4
launch, capable of placing six Globalstar satellites into orbit. The
company says it will use the launch only if it needs the additional
capacity. Otherwise, the launch will be given to Loral for another
satellite.
Globalstar plans to use its satellites to provide a global
phone service similar to Iridium, which has been operational since
November. Globalstar promises superior signal quality and the
capability for fax, data, and messaging services using its system.
Astronomers Get Unprecedented Look at Gamma-Ray Burst
A network of satellites and telescopes have given astronomers
their best look yet at a gamma-ray burst (GRB), including the first
look at the visible-light portion of the burst, NASA announced
Wednesday, January 27.
The frenzy of activity began at approximately 4:47 am EST
(0947 UT) Saturday, January 23, when the BATSE instrument on the
Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory detected a GRB. The data was sent to
the Goddard Space Flight Center immediately, triggering an automated
alert.
Within seconds, a groundbased telescope, the Robotic Optical
Transient Search Experiment (ROTSE), located in Los Alamos, New
Mexico, swung into action. Just 22 seconds after the burst was
detected the telephoto leses on ROTSE captured a visible-light image
of the region of the sky where the burst had been detected. ROTSE
continued to capture images as a bright star suddently appeared in the
field, peaking at magnitude 8.9, only 15 times dimmer than the
naked-eye limit.
"I was amazed," said Carl Akerlof of the University of
Michigan, who leads the ROTSE team. "At best, we expected something
really dim optically, at the limit of our sensitivity. Instead we
found a whopper."
Followup observations continued at larger telescopes as the
optical burst dimmed. Three hours after the burst was detected,
Caltech astronomers observed the burst using the 1.5-meter (60-inch)
telescope at Palomar Observatory. Their images confirmed the precise
location of the burst that was provided by the Italian-Dutch BeppoSAX
satellite, which also recorded gamma-rays from the burst.
The following night, astronomers used the Keck II telescope in
Hawaii to obtain spectra of the fading optical burst. From the
spectra, they found that the burst had a redshift of 1.6,
corresponding to a distance of about 10 billion light-years.
"If the burst had occurred somewhere in our galactic
neighborhood, it would have been so bright that night would've turned
into day," said Chryssa Kouveliotou of Universities Space Research
Association at the Marshall Space Flight Center.
The source of the GRB is not yet known. The Caltech
astronomers located a galaxy near the location of the GRB in pre-burst
images, but now believe that the galaxy is closer to the Earth than
the burst.
Astronomers hailed the coordinated efforts that yielded a
treasure trove of data that may help scientists understand what
generates GRBs and how. "This discovery demonstrates the power of
multiple spacecraft and ground-based instruments working together via
the Internet to solve some of the greatest mysteries in astrophysics,"
said BATSE chief scientist Jerry Fishman.
One of the recent finalists for NASA's medium-class Explorer
(MIDEX) space science missions is the Swift Gamma Ray Burst Explorer,
which would use ultraviolet/visible-light, X-ray, and gamma-ray
telescopes to detect GRBs.
Gamma-ray bursts may be caused by mergers of two neutron stars
or black holes, or the explosion of a class of supernova known as a
hypernova. GRBs, whose powerful gamma rays can be lethal at distances
of tens of thousands of light years, have been implicated as one
reason why extraterrestrial civilizations have not yet been detected.
Five Space Science Missions Selected for Study
Five proposals for low-cost space science missions that would
study everything from the Earth's aurorae to distant gamma-ray bursts
have been selected by NASA for future study, the space agency
announced Tuesday, January 26.
The five mission proposals are part of NASA's medium-class
Explorer (MIDEX) program of low-cost space science missions. Each
project will receive $350,000 to conduct a four-month feasibility
study, after which NASA will select two of the missions for flight in
2003 and 2004.
"Once launched, these missions will provide insights into some
of the biggest questions in space science," Ed Weiler, NASA associate
administrator for space science, said. He also noted that the
missions "continue NASA's trend toward greatly lowering mission costs
with innovative mission planning and operations."
The MIDEX program is similar to the Discovery Program in that
it emphasizes low-cost science missions. But while Discovery missions
are planetary in nature, MIDEX missions span a wide range of physics
and astronomy projects. In addition, MIDEX projects have a strict
cost cap of $140 million, while Discovery missions have a development
cost cap of $190 million and total mission cost of no more than $299
million.
The five mission proposals are:
* The Auroral Multiscale Midex Mission (AMM), which would fly
four identical spacecraft in polar, elliptical orbits to study the
interaction between the Earth's ionosphere and magnetosphere, and how
that leads to the formation of aurorae;
* The Advanced Solar Coronal Explorer (ASCE), an orbiting
solar observatory that would study the Sun's corona and solar wind
with coronagraphs 100 times better that existing instruments. The
spacecraft would be launched on the shuttle and retrieved two years
later;
* The Next Generation Sky Survey (NGSS), an infrared telescope
1,000 times more sensitive than previous missions. The spacecraft
would be capable of discovering any brown dwarf stars near the Sun as
well as all asteroids more than about three km (two mi.) in diameter
in the main asteroid belt;
* The Full-sky Astrometric Mapping Explorer (FAME), which
would determine the precise position of 40 million stars in the Milky
Way. Such measurements would provide accurate distances to half the
objects in the Milky Way, be able to detect planetary systems around
stars as far as 1,000 light-years away based on their wobble, and set
limits on the amount of dark matter around the galaxy;
* The Swift Gamma Ray Burst Explorer, a three-telescope
spacecraft that would be able to measure the position, brightness, and
physical properties of gamma-ray bursts to a degree not currently
possible.
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Дата: 03 февраля 1999 (1999-02-03)
От: Alexander Bondugin
Тема: SpaceViews - 1 February 1999 [4/6]
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SpaceViews Event Horizon
February TBD Delta 2 launch of the Argos, Sunsat, and Oersted
satellites from Vandenberg AFB, California
February TBD Proton launch of the Telstar-6 communications
satellite from Baikonur, Kazakhstan.
February 1 Atlas 2AS launch of the JCSAT-6 communications
satellite from Cape Canaveral, Florida, at
7:44 pm EST (0044 UT Feb. 1)
February 6 Delta 2 launch of NASA's Stardust cometary dust sample
return mission at 4:07 pm EST (2107 UT) from Cape
Canaveral, Florida
February 9-10 FAA Commercial Space Transportation Forecast
Conference, Washington, DC
February 20 Soyuz launch of Soyuz TM-29 spacecraft with Mir relief
crew from Baikonur, Kazakhstan
February 26 Ariane 4 launch of the Arabsat-3A and Skynet-4E
comsats at from Kourou, French Guiana.
Other News
Ariane, Proton Delays: Upcoming launches of the Ariane 4 and Proton
boosters have been delayed. A problem with a computer on the fourth
stage of a Proton booster delayed its planned late-January launch,
pushing the launch date back no more than 30 days. It will launch the
Telstar 6 satellite for Loral. An Ariane 4 launch of Arab and British
satellites, scheduled for early February, was pushed back last week
when problems were found with actuators that control the rocket's
engine nozzles. The launch of the Arabsat 3A and Skynet 4E satellites
has been delayed to February 26.
More Chandra Testing: Engineers will spend an additional week testing
critical circuit boards on the Chandra X-Ray Observatory ("Chandra")
spacecraft, NASA announced Wednesday, January 27. The extra time will
be used to test potentially-faulty circuit boards to conditions equal
to three times the estimated lifetime of Chandra, instead of two
times, as previously planned. TRW discovered the problem last week
when tests of another spacecraft that used similar circuit boards
showed problems related to poor conductivity between layers of the
board. The previously-announced one-week delay had already pushed the
launch back from early April to at least mid-May, although if no
further work is needed no further delays should be needed.
SpaceDev Contract: SpaceDev has won a contract from the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory to study designs for small, versatile Mars
spacecraft, the company announced Monday, January 25. The two-month
contract, awarded to SpaceDev's Integrated Space Systems (ISS)
subsidiary, will study the possible development of a microspacecraft
bus that could be used as a science or communications orbiter or as a
carrier for landers for possible future Mars missions. The contract
award is the second deal in as many months between SpaceDev and JPL.
In December the company contracted with JPL to begin work planning to
acquire time on NASA's Deep Space Network for SpaceDev's centerpiece
project, the Near Earth Asteroid Prospector (NEAP) spacecraft.
Progress for Europa, Mars Express: The European Space Agency (ESA)
made decisions last month to continue work on two major planetary
science missions, although funding for one of them is not yet certain.
A meeting of scientists and engineers January 14 and 15 concluded that
ESA's Rosetta mission was making "excellent progress." ESA has given
the project approval to enter "Phase C/D", the phase of development
where the spacecraft is constructed and readied for launch. Rosetta,
one of ESA's most ambitious missions, will fly to the comet Wirtanen
and go into orbit around the object, while dropping a lander to the
surface of the comet's nucleus, and is scheduled for a 2003 launch.
The Mars Express project got funding to support a "Phase B" study of
the proposed Mars orbiter and lander mission. The Phase B work will
be carried out by Matra Marconi Space. A decision on full funding for
the project will not come until a meeting of ministers from ESA's
member nations, scheduled for May.
Million-Dollar Astronomers: Two astronomers seeking to understand the
nature and origin of the universe have received $1 million fellowships
from a foundation to continue their work. On Tuesday, January 26, the
James S. McDonnell Foundation awarded $1 million fellowships to John
Carlstrom of the University of Chicago and Christopher Stubbs of the
University of Washington. The awards were two of ten handed out by
the foundation's Centennial Fellowship program. Carlstrom will use
the funds to support his work looking for objects in the distant
universe at microwave wavelengths, while Stubbs will use the money to
look for evidence of dark matter.
In Brief: Bottoms Up: Large structures in the universe formed from
aggregations of smaller galaxies and clusters, and not the other way
around, British astronomers reported last month. By studying hot gas
at X-ray wavelengths, University of Birmingham astronomers found that
galaxies formed first, then clumped together to form the larger
structures astronomers see today... Mars Media: Mars is becoming
popular again, based on a surge of articles seen in magazines
recently. The January/February issue of Technology Review and the
February issue of Discover both features stories on the Mars Society's
inaugural convention last August, while Popular Science's February
cover story discussed NASA's "Mars Semi-Direct" plan for human
missions to Mars, based in large part on Robert Zubrin's Mars
Direct... If you do go to Mars, though, be careful what you return, a
new organization warns. The International Committee Against Mars
Sample Return (ICAMSR) warns that planned Mars sample return missions,
where the sample-bearing payload returns directly to Earth, could pose
a hazard if the sample contains Martian microrganisms. Their
solution: bring the sample to a special biohazard module on the
International Space Station, to prevent contamination of the Earth.
More information online at
http://www.networx.on.ca/~gerryc/icamsr/main.htm
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Дата: 03 февраля 1999 (1999-02-03)
От: Alexander Bondugin
Тема: SpaceViews - 1 February 1999 [5/6]
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*** Articles ***
Vanguard and Its Legacy
by Andrew J. LePage
Introduction
A key component of NASA's infant space science program was
Project Vanguard. Originally developed by the Naval Research
Laboratory (NRL) as America's first official satellite program (see
"Vanguard: America's Answer to Sputnik" in the December 1997 issue of
Space Views), Project Vanguard and much of its NRL team were
transferred to NASA once it was established in October 1958.
Despite a dismal orbital launch record of only one success in
seven tries by the time NASA assumed control, it was recognized that
Project Vanguard was at the cutting edge of space science and
technology. As a result, Project Vanguard had much to offer future
NASA programs in the way of experience and technology. But in
addition to this, Project Vanguard also arrived with a ready supply of
hardware consisting of four flight-ready launch vehicles and an
assortment of scientific satellite payloads just waiting to be
launched.
Vanguard 2
After the string of four failures that followed the launch of
Vanguard 1 in March of 1958, the project team and its industrial
partners had much work ahead of them to improve the reliability of the
Vanguard launch vehicle (see "Vanguard 1: The Little Satellite that
Could" in the March 1998 issue of Space Views). After a five month
stand down, the former-NRL team was ready to launch their first
satellite under NASA management. By early 1959, the components of
SLV-4 (Satellite Launch Vehicle 4) had been exhaustively tested and
assembled at Launch Complex 18A at the Eastern Test Range in Florida.
The payload for this launch vehicle would be one of the
project's "standard" satellites consisting of a polished,
51-centimeter (20-inch) magnesium alloy sphere holding a pair of
transmitters, recorders, scientific instruments, and mercury batteries
to power it all. For this particular mission, the primary instrument
was a pair of small photocell-equipped telescopes designed to produce
the first images of Earth from orbit for a period of two weeks.
Supplied by the Army Signal Corps which was developing a weather
satellite under the aegis of ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency),
these units would use the spin of the satellite to scan a line across
the face of the Earth. The forward motion of the satellite would then
allow a picture of the scene below to be produced one line at a time.
This payload was virtually identical to that carried by the ill fated
SLV-3 launched just before NASA assumed control of the project. As
before, it was hoped that these first crude images of the Earth from
orbit would provide data on the planet's radiation budget as well as
guidance in designing more capable imaging systems in the future.
On February 17, 1959 SLV-4 smoothly lifted off and headed
towards space. Once the third and final stage had burned out, the
10.8-kilogram (23.7-pound) Vanguard 2 was in a 557 by 3,319 kilometer
(346 by 2,063 mile) orbit inclined 32.9 degrees to the equator. After
a string of three unsuccessful Moon probes, NASA finally had its first
successful launch into space.
But everything was not totally well with the Earth's newest
artificial companion. According to the original plan, a clamp holding
Vanguard 2 to its solid propellant third stage was to release once in
orbit allowing a spring to cleanly separate the two. While this took
place more or less as planned, a residual discharge or "burp" from the
free flying third stage rocket motor just after separation resulted in
the stage bumping the released satellite. Instead of spinning
predictably about a predetermined axis, the minor collision introduced
a precession that set Vanguard 2 wobbling as it traveled around the
Earth.
Without a means of determining exactly where it was pointing,
the stream of brightness values returned by Vanguard 2 could not be
reassembled into a coherent picture by scientist back on the ground.
While certainly a disappointment to the experiment's designers, the
data Vanguard 2 returned during its 27 day active life was still quite
useful. Detailed analysis of the data yielded statistics on scene
structure and illumination as observed from orbit. All this
information would aid the development of future weather satellites.
More Advances
With the successful launch of Vanguard 2, attention turned to
the next satellite. Unlike the simple satellites carried earlier, the
payload for SLV-5 had an entirely different configuration.
Provisionally dubbed "Vanguard 3", this 10.6 kilogram (23.3 pound)
payload actually consisted of a pair of satellites. The first,
Vanguard 3A, was a 33 centimeter (13 inch) in diameter fiberglass and
phenolic resin sphere carrying a precision magnetometer designed to
map the Earth's magnetic field.
Connected to Vanguard 3A by a 6.4 centimeter (2.5 inch) wide,
44.5 centimeter (17.5 inch) long cylinder was a second satellite
designated Vanguard 3B. This passive satellite was a laminated sheet
plastic and aluminum foil balloon that would inflate to 0.76 meters
(30 inches) across after it separated from Vanguard 3A in orbit.
Lacking a transmitter or other active instrumentation, Vanguard 3B
would be tracked optically to yield information on the density of the
uppermost reaches of Earth's atmosphere.
While this multiple satellite technique was an innovative
means of making the best use of a rocket's payload capability (one
that NRL engineers would put to extensive use in future Navy satellite
programs), Vanguard 3 would never have a chance to prove itself.
SLV-5 failed on April 13, 1959 when pitch control was lost in the
second stage of the launch vehicle after its first stage had
separated. After this disappointing failure, NASA canceled the lost
payload's "Vanguard 3" designation in an attempt to establish the
agency's early practice of saving official satellite designations
(like "Vanguard", "Pioneer", and "Explorer") for payloads that
survived launch and actually made it into space. The "Vanguard 3"
moniker would be reserved for the next Vanguard satellite to reach
orbit.
The next Vanguard rocket, SLV-6, was earmarked to launch the
next "Vanguard 3" contender. Unlike the innovative design of the
previous payload, a standard Vanguard satellite would be launched this
time. This 10.8 kilogram (23.8 pound) satellite was to be placed into
a high inclination, 48 degree orbit in order to measure the Earth's
radiation budget over a large fraction of its surface. Instruments on
the satellite would measure the amount of incoming light from the Sun,
the reflected light from the Earth, as well as the amount of infrared
radiation emitted by the Earth's surface and atmosphere. Such
information would be vital in developing more advanced and accurate
models of Earth's weather and climate.
Because of the high inclination of the intended orbit, SLV-6
would have to perform an untried roll maneuver shortly after launch to
set it on the more northerly course required for this mission. On
June 22, 1959 SLV-6 lifted off and successfully rolled from its
initial azimuth of 48 degrees to 100 degrees before pitching over as
planned. But as had happened too often before, things went awry after
the second stage took over. Immediately after ignition of the AJ-10
engine, pressure plummeted in the second stage's tanks resulting in a
reduced propellant flow. After the AJ-10 sputtered for 40 seconds,
the helium pressurant tank exploded because of the heat build up
destroying the ascending rocket. Vanguard had failed again.
Hа сегодня все, пока!
=SANA=
Дата: 03 февраля 1999 (1999-02-03)
От: Alexander Bondugin
Тема: SpaceViews - 1 February 1999 [6/6]
Привет всем!
Вот, свалилось из Internet...
The Last Launch
With only one flight-ready launch vehicle left from the
original batch of Vanguard rockets ordered by NRL and no commitment
from NASA to procure more, Project Vanguard now had only one last
chance to orbit a satellite. For this flight, SLV-7 was used. Using
TV-4BU (Test Vehicle 4 Back Up) hardware left over from Vanguard test
program, the rocket had been returned to the Glenn L. Martin Company
facility in Baltimore to be stripped of test instrumentation and
refurbished to become SLV-7 after the successful launch of Vanguard 1
on TV-4. Unlike all the other Vanguard rockets which used a
conventional, steel-cased solid propellant third stage built by the
Grand Central Rocket Company, SLV-7 would use the more advanced,
fiberglass-cased unit developed by the Allegheny Ballistic Laboratory.
This new rocket motor, called X-248, had been developed in
parallel with Vanguard's original third stage motor as a
high-performance backup to the latter. Because of its unparalleled
performance, the X-248 had already been incorporated in a number of
other rockets by the time Project Vanguard was ready to use it. By
the summer of 1959, the X-248 had already been flown three times as
the third stage of the Thor-Able space carrier rocket. The
substitution of the X-248 as Vanguard third stage promised to more
than double the rocket's original payload capability.
For this last launch, a highly modified version of the
standard Vanguard satellite was employed. With a significantly
increased payload capability, much more equipment could be crammed
into the 23.8 kilogram (52.3 pound) satellite giving it the instrument
payload equivalent to two standard Vanguard satellites. Like the ill
fated satellite carried by TV-5 in April of 1958, this satellite would
carry a suite of instruments to monitor solar X-ray emissions as well
as study the radiation and micrometeoroid environment in orbit. A
proton magnetometer similar to the one carried by the original
"Vanguard 3" would be housed in a special 66 centimeter (26 inch) tall
conical fiberglass housing on top of the satellite's spherical 50.8
centimeter (20 inch) main body. The magnetometer, in addition to
being able to map the Earth's magnetic field, would also be capable of
measuring kilohertz-frequency radio emissions that could probe the
Earth's ionosphere from above. All of these data could be recorded
for later playback when within range of a ground station. To simplify
the design and save further weight, the X-248 third stage would stay
attached to the satellite once in orbit yielding a total mass of 43.0
kilograms (94.6 pounds) - almost 30 times larger than the original,
grapefruit-sized Vanguard 1.
SLV-7 lifted off on September 18, 1959 under the watchful gaze
of the public. To the relief of all involved, this last launch was
successful and Vanguard 3 was placed into 510 by 3,743 kilometer (317
by 2,326 mile) orbit around the Earth inclined 33.3 degrees to the
equator. Until it finally fell silent on December 8, Vanguard 3
returned a wealth of new scientific data. Over two thirds of its
4,200 magnetometer measurements were deemed "prime data" to be used to
characterize the Earth's magnetic field. Other instruments performed
a comprehensive survey of the inner edge of the Van Allen radiation
belt adding significantly to the understanding of this Space Age
discovery. The flight of Vanguard 3 proved to be a fitting finale to
the nation's first official satellite program.
The Legacy
While Project Vanguard had been officially "phased out" by
NASA's first anniversary, the project left an invaluable legacy whose
influence is still seen to this day. Even before the project's first
successful launch, Vanguard's upper stages had been modified for use
on the Thor-Able which launched the nation's first Moon probes (see
"Operation Mona: America's First Moon Program" in the April 1998 issue
of Space Views). By the end of the Vanguard program, plans were
already well underway to use these same stages with the Atlas-Able to
launch NASA's new series of Pioneer probes to the Moon and beyond.
The Thor-Able hardware would later be significantly modified to become
the famous Delta launch vehicle whose descendants still fly today.
The X-248 rocket motor would also be used in NASA's low-cost Scout
solid propellant satellite launcher.
The Vanguard satellite hardware itself would also prove to be
valuable. Much of the hardware (e.g., telemetry systems, tracking
beacons, miniature tape recorders, etc.) developed for the program had
already been "borrowed" by other satellite programs and future
satellite hardware would be based on this newly proven technology.
Vanguard's network of tracking facilities would serve as the basis of
NASA's worldwide tracking network. Management techniques developed run
the project were also adopted by NASA. The list goes on and on.
Although Project Vanguard often gets pushed aside because of
its poor flight record of only three successes in 11 attempts, it left
a powerful legacy that immeasurably aided America's push into space.
Bibliography
John P. Hagen, "The Viking and the Vanguard", in The History of Rocket
Technology, edited by Eugene M. Emme, Wayne State University Press,
pp. 122-141, 1964
Constance McLaughlin Green and Milton Lomask, Vanguard, A History,
NASA SP-4202, 1970
Author
Drew LePage is a physicist and freelance writer specializing in
astronomy and the history of spaceflight. He can be reached at
lepage@visidyne.com.
This has been the February 1, 1999, issue of SpaceViews.
SpaceViews is also available on the World Wide web from the
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Hа сегодня все, пока!
=SANA=
Дата: 03 февраля 1999 (1999-02-03)
От: Alexander Bondugin
Тема: Получены первые изображения с помощью ИК-телескопа Subaru
Привет всем!
Вот, свалилось из Internet...
Получены первые изображения с помощью ИК-телескопа Subaru
Получены первые изображения, сделанные с помощью недавно начавшего
работу крупнейшего в мире телескопа Subaru, исследующего космос в видимом
и ИК-диапазоне длин волн. Этот японский телескоп находится на Гавайских
островах на вершине вулкана Мауна-Ки. Его обслуживанием занимается
Японская национальная астрономическая обсерватория. Уже получены
фотографии Юпитера и Сатурна (на снимке, Сатурн справа), туманности
Ориона, самого дальнего из известных квазаров во Вселенной и других
объектов.
Фотографии можно посмотреть по адресу
http://chain.mtk.nao.ac.jp/outreach/press_releases/990128/.
Источник: InfoArt News Agency
Hа сегодня все, пока!
=SANA=
Дата: 03 февраля 1999 (1999-02-03)
От: Alexander Bondugin
Тема: Получены первые изображения с помощью ИК-телескопа Subaru (картинка)
Привет всем!
Вот, свалилось из Internet...
section 1 of 1 of file space-02.jpg < uuencode 5.32 by R.E.M. >
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end
sum -r/size 32212/7945 section (from "begin" to "end")
sum -r/size 38266/5743 entire input file
Hа сегодня все, пока!
=SANA=
Дата: 03 февраля 1999 (1999-02-03)
От: Alexander Bondugin
Тема: Тестирование космического телескопа Chandra будет продолжено
Привет всем!
Вот, свалилось из Internet...
Тестирование космического телескопа Chandra будет продолжено
[SpaceViews] NASA приняло решение о продлении на неделю тестирования
оборудования космического телескопа Chandra X-Ray Observatory ("Chandra").
Ранее испытания было решено продолжить из-за возможных проблем с
некоторыми электронными системами корабля. Hа основе результатов
дополнительных испытаний будут сделаны выводы о необходимости замены
некоторых электронных плат.
Решение о продлении испытаний было принято после проблем, возникших
при тестировании другого космического корабля, в котором используются
аналогичные электронных компоненты.
Одна неделя задержки при испытаниях означает, что запуск космического
телескопа будет отложен как минимум на 5 недель. Сейчас предполагается,
что он будет выведен в космос "шаттлом" Columbia в середине мая. Если же в
результате испытаний будет сделан вывод о необходимости замены части
электронных плат, то запуск будет вновь отложен на пока не определенное
время.
Ранее планировалось запустить космический телескоп Chandra в августе
1998 г., но проблемы с его сборкой отодвинули старт на декабрь. Однако в
октябре после возникновения проблем с электроникой корабля дата старта
была вновь передвинута, на этот раз на начало апреля.
Источник: InfoArt News Agency
Hа сегодня все, пока!
=SANA=
Дата: 03 февраля 1999 (1999-02-03)
От: Alexander Bondugin
Тема: Тестирование космического телескопа Chandra (картинка)
Привет всем!
Вот, свалилось из Internet...
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end
sum -r/size 38561/5953 section (from "begin" to "end")
sum -r/size 51960/4297 entire input file
Hа сегодня все, пока!
=SANA=
Дата: 03 февраля 1999 (1999-02-03)
От: Alexander Bondugin
Тема: Экипаж станции "Мир" собирается осветить Землю
Привет всем!
Вот, свалилось из Internet...
Экипаж станции "Мир" собирается осветить Землю
Экипаж российской орбитальной станции "Мир" собирается в четверг 4
февраля провести эффектный эксперимент "Знамя" с использованием огромного
зеркала, которое должно отразить солнечный свет и направить его на Землю.
Зеркало представляет собой очень прочную мембрану диаметром чуть более 25
м, покрытую тонким металлическим слоем. Оно должно как Луна отразить свет
Солнца на территорию Европы и Северной Америки.
Сейчас эта мембрана в сложенном виде укреплена на грузовом корабле
"Прогресс", пристыкованном к станции. 4 февраля в 13 ч 04 мин по
московскому времени космонавты Геннадий Падалка и Сергей Авдеев должны
будут отстыковать "Прогресс" от "Мира" и отвести его на расстояние порядка
350 м, в 14 ч 34 мин будет дан сигнал на разворачивание зеркала. После
того как зеркало полностью раскроется, экипаж должен будет так
ориентировать "Прогресс", чтобы пятно света заняло устойчивое положение на
земной поверхности.
Предполагается освещать земную поверхность в районе между 48 и 51
градусом северной широты. Свет Солнца, отраженный от зеркала, будет иметь
яркость как 10 лун. Hа земле будет освещаться круг диаметром 5-7 км. В
безоблачную погоду луч должен быть виден на расстоянии до 300 км.
Освещение каждого участка будет вестись через 8-10 мин после захода
солнца.
В 16 ч 12 мин планируется осветить район Караганды и озера Зайсан,
далее лучик пойдет на запад и в 17 ч 45 мин будет освещать район Саратова
- Актюбинска, в 19 ч 18 мин - Полтаву, в 20 ч 50 мин - район Льежа -
Франкфурта. Затем будет сделан перерыв на 3 часа для отдыха экипажа. В 2 ч
54 мин 5 февраля зайчик осветит Виннипег и Квебек, в 4 ч 30 мин - район
Калгари. В 5 ч 13 мин произойдет отстрел зеркала от "Прогресса". Затем
"Прогресс", на котором сейчас собран накопившийся на станции мусор, сгорит
в верхних слоях атмосферы.
В 1993 г. уже была сделана попытка проведения аналогичного
эксперимента, но зеркало тогда было существенно меньших размеров и зайчик
продержался совсем недолго, поэтому его с трудом могли увидеть только те,
кто знал его местоположение.
Источник: InfoArt News Agency
Hа сегодня все, пока!
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